*  literally: struggle

*  greater jihad vs. lesser jihad

*  Muhammad: “Now we have returned from the lesser jihad to the greater jihad.”

*  Qur'an allows fighting / Qur'anic attitude realistic

Classical theory/ies of lesser jihad established in expansionist Umayyad (661-750) and Abbasid  times (8th - century onwards); crystallization in about 9th - 10th centuries (“closing of the gates of ijtihad”)

Jihad both defensive warfare and expansion of Dar al-Islam (abode of Islam) vs. Dar al-Harb (abode of war), sometimes “abode of treaty” as third alternative.

*Some classical stipulations put on lesser jihad:

* only caliph / imam can call for jihad /  * jihad preceded by invitation to Islam / * No killing of women, children, priests, or animals (except those used in battle) / * no destruction of places of worship /  * no attack on non-Muslims who have received promise of protection from other Muslims*

Modern interpretations * re-opening of the “gates of ijtihad” leads to attempts to apply God's guidance to modern realities: 

* There is no longer a “Dar al-Harb”

* “Ahl al-Kitab” (People of the Book) are no Mushrikun / no “pagans” / ahl al-kitab include other religions apart from Christianity and Judaism

* “historical critical method” / asbab an-nuzul: Fighting verses applied to particular period when Islam(dom) was under attack; even expansionist warfare of Umayyad and Abbasid times is ultimately preemptively defensive: verses of Qur'an have to be read as sanctioning defensive warfare. 

* Emphasis on greater jihad (internal struggle against evil); Prophet Muhammad  abandoned lesser Jihad for greater Jihad.